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Hydro, Wave and Tidal Energy Applications
K.R. Rao, PhD, PE
Editor
Hydro, Wave and Tidal Energy ApplicationsK.R. Rao, PhD, PE Editor© 2024, The American Society of Mechanical Engineers, shall not be responsible for statements or opinions advanced in papers or... printed in its publications (B7.1.3). Statement from the Bylaws.For authorization to photocopy material for internal or personal use under those circumstances not falling within the fair use provisions of the Copyright Act, contact the Copyright Clearance Center (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923.ISBN: 978-0-7918-8817-9Book No. 888179
CONTENTSDedication xiAcknowledgements xiiiContributing Biographies xvPreface xixIntroduction xxiiCHAPTER 1: HYDRO POWER: GLOBAL AND NORTH AMERICAN PERSPECTIVES 1Stephen D. Spain1.1 INTRODUCTION TO HYDROPOWER 11.2 HISTORY OF HYDROPOWER 11.3 HYDROPOWER IN THE UNITED STATES 21.4 HYDROPOWER IN CANADA 51.5 HYDROPOWER IN MEXICO 51.6 HYDROPOWER WORLDWIDE 51.7 HYDROPOWER EQUIPMENT 51.8 TURBINE RATING AND POWER FACTOR 81.9 TURBINE PERFORMANCE TESTING 81.10 HYDROELECTRIC GENERATORS 81.11 HYDROELECTRIC CONTROLS 81.12 HYDROPOWER FOR ENERGY STORAGE 91.13 OCEAN AND KINETIC HYDROPOWER 101.14 THE FUTURE OF HYDROPOWER 131.15 FURTHER READING 141.16 ADDITIONAL RESOURCES 151.17 REFERENCES 16CHAPTER 2: CHALLENGES and OPPORTUNITIES in TIDAL and WAVE POWE 17Paul T. JacobsonABSTRACT 172.1 INTRODUCTION 172.2 THE RESOURCE 182.3 ENGINEERING CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES 202.4 SOCIOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC FACTORS 212.5 ECOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS 222.6 SUMMARY 232.7 ACRONYMS 242.8 REFERENCES 24CHAPTER 3: HYDRO POWER GENERATION IN INDIA –STATUS AND CHALLENGES 27Dharam Vir Thareja & Jaideep Singh Bawa3.1 INTRODUCTION 273.2 INSTALLED CAPACITY 283.3 HYDRO POWER POTENTIAL 283.4 GROWTH OF HYDRO POWER 293.5 NEED AND NECESSITY OF HYDROPOWER DEVELOPMENT 313.6 ADVANTAGES OF HYDRO POWER 323.7 MEASURES FOR ACCELERATION OF HYDRO POWER DEVELOPMENT 333.8 POLICIES CONDUCIVE FOR FASTER DEVELOPMENT OF HYDRO POWER 353.9 SMALL HYDRO DEVELOPMENT 363.10 RE POLICY OF CENTRAL / STATE GOVTS 383.11 PUMPED STORAGE DEVELOPMENTS 383.12 TRANSMISSION, SET-UP AND STATUS 413.13 CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS OF WATER & POWER RESOURCES 433.14 REGULATORY AGENCIES 433.15 RESETTLEMENT AND REHABILITATION POLICIES 433.16 APPRAISAL AND CLEARANCE OF DPRS 443.17 COOPERATION WITH NEIGHBOURING COUNTRIES 473.18 RESPONSE & ACHIEVEMENT OF PRIVATE SECTOR 473.19 RENOVATION & MODERNISATION (R&M) 483.20 ISSUES, CONSTRAINTS AND CHALLENGES IN DEVELOPMENT OF HYDRO PROJECTS 483.21 INNOVATIONS FOR FUTURE PROJECTS 513.22 CONCLUSIONS 513.23 ACRONYMS 523.24 REFERENCES & GOVERNMENT OF INDIA WEBSITES (IN PUBLIC DOMAIN) 53CHAPTER 4: HYDRO TASMANIA — KING ISLAND CASE STUDY WITH AN UP-DATE 55Simon Gamble, Marian Piekutowski, Ryan Willems And K. R. RaoABSTRACT 554.1 INTRODUCTION 554.2 THE KING ISLAND RENEWABLE ENERGY INTEGRATION PROJECT 574.3 OFF-GRID POWER SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT 584.4 KING ISLAND POWER SYSTEM OVERVIEW 614.5 PERFORMANCE OF RENEWAL ENERGY DEVELOPMENTS 654.6 ASSESMENT OF BENEFITS 674.7 KING ISLAND PROPOSED DEVELOPMENTS 724.8 CONCLUSIONS 784.9 REFERENCES 784.10 UPDATED INFORMATION FOR CHAPTER 4 BY K. R. RAO 78Chapter 5: HYDRO POWER GENERATION 79K. R. Rao5.1 INTRODUCTION 795.2 HYDRO POWER VISION. 805.3 HYDRO POWER RESOURCES – DAMS AND LAKES 815.4 HYDROPOWER STORAGE AND HYBRID HYDRO ENERGY 875.5 HYDROPOWER MONITORING 905.6 POPULATION ACCESSIBILITY TO HYDROPOWER GENERATION 905.7 CLIMATE IMPACT ON HP GENERATION 945.8 FUNCTIONALITY INDICATORS FOR HYDROPOWER. 965.9 HYDRAULIC POWER QUALITY AND DELIVERY SYSTEM. 965.10 HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS. -PROS AND CONS. 985.11 MODERNIZING HYDRO POWER (HP) 1015.12 WHY AND HOW CAN US HYDRO POWER (HP) BE MODERNIZED? 1015.13 HOW ARE OTHER US ENTERPRISES HANDLING THIS CRUCIAL HP MODERNIZATION PROBLEM? 1015.14 HYDROPOWER MODERNIZATION NEEDS IN ASIA 1025.15 ASSESSING THE ENERGY POTENTIAL OF MODERNIZING THE EUROPEAN HYDROPOWER FLEET 1045.16 HOW HYDRO MODERNIZATION SUPPORTS CANADIAN RENEWABLE ENERGY OBJECTIVES 1055.17 GLOBAL HYDROPOWER POTENTIAL AND FUTURE USAGE 1065.18 RAPID CHANGES ARE COMING FOR HYDROPOWER 1075.19 OBJECTIVES STANDARD MODULAR HYDROPOWER (SMH) 1105.20 ARE MODULAR SYSTEMS THE FUTURE FOR HYDROPOWER? 1135.21 SUSTAINABLE HYDRO POWER PROJECTION. 114CHAPTER 6 HYDRO POWER - AFRICA 121K. R. RAO6.1 AFRICA’S HYDRO POWER PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS IMPACTED BY CLIMATE AND POPULATION 1216.2 AFRICA’S RIVERS AND DAMS 1236.3 PROSPECTS AND PROBLEMS OF HYDRO POWER IN AFRICA: 1266.4 QUALITY AND DELIVERY SYSTEM OF HYDROPOWER IN AFRICA. 1276.5 HYDROELECTRIC DISTRIBUTION IN AFRICA 1306.6 MODERNIZATION OF HYDROPOWER PLANTS IN AFRICA. 1326.7 SUSTAINABLE HYDRO PROJECTIONS 136CHAPTER 7: HYDROPOWER OF ASIA, MIDEAST, SOUTH AMERICA 1417.0 INTRODUCTION 1417.1 HYDRO POWER EAST ASIA AND PACIFIC REGION 1417.2 HYDRO POWER IN SOUTH AND CENTRAL ASIA 144 7.3 HYDRO POWER MID EAST (MENA) 1487.4 HYDRO POWER SOUTH AMERICA 154CHAPTER 8_HYDROPOWER - DEVELOPED NATIONS 161K. R. Rao8.1 GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE 1618.2 HYDROPOWER AUSTRALASIA AND OCEANA 1628.3 HYDROPOWER IN EUROPE 1638.4 HYDRO POWER INITIATIVE IN CANADA 1668.5 USA 167CHAPTER 9_ GLOBAL WAVE and TIDAL ENERGY 171K. R. Rao9.1 INTRODCUTION 1739.2 WAVE ENERGY 1779.3 CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES OF WE 1869.4 TIDAL ENERGY 1969.5 OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY CONVERSION (OETC308) 2199.6 SUSTAINABILITY AND FUTURE 224Index 225DEDICATIONThis Hydro, Wave and Tidal Energy Applications book is dedicated to:
Padma Bhushan Late Dr. K. L. Rao, “Father of Irrigation and Power in India”, under whom I started my professional engineering career, however short it may be. This book is dedicated to acknowledge very humbly Dr. Rao’s intervention which was solely responsible for my coming to the US for the doctoral fellowship, otherwise my career would have definitely taken a different course.Late Dr. Robert Toll Norman my doctoral advisor who guided me a ‘math major engineer from India’ to write with the result this happens to be my twenty fifth ‘high-tech’ engineering book, either edited or authored by me, several of them ending up as “classics”.Late Mr. VRP Rao, Fellow-IE for encouraging in me interest in taking up these “renewable energy projects”, “other than nuclear,” in whichI was engaged for two decades.Late Dr. Byra Gowda, Fellow ASME, Pittsburgh, PA for involving me in ASME, in the late 1980s.Dr. K.R. Rao Editor-in-ChiefRenewable Energy SeriesPREFACEAs previously noted, three books covering Solar, Biomass and Waste Energy and Wind Energy precede this publication in the ASME’s Renewable Energy Series. This fourth book of the ASME’s Renewable Energy Series Updates Hydro, Wave and Tidal Energy Resources around the globe which were addressed in chapters 11, 12, 13 and 18 of the “Energy and Power Generation Handbook”, published by ASME in 2011.In the 2011 Handbook in chapter 11 Stephen D. Spain covered Hydro Power Generation: Global and US Perspective; in chapter 12, Hydro. Power Generation in India – Status and Challenges has been addressed by Dharam Vir Thareja; Challenges and Opportunities in Tidal and Wave Power was covered by Paul T. Jacobson in chapter 13, and Hydro Tasmania - King Island case study was authored by Simon Gamble, Marian Piekutowski and Ryan Willems in chapter 28.In the current publication titled “Hydro, Wave and Tidal Energy Applications” Chapters 11, 12 and 13 had been updated by Stephen D. Spain, Dharam Vir Thareja and Jaideep Singh Bawa and Paul T. Jacobson in chapters 1, 2 and 3 respectively. In chapter 3 Thareja is joined by a new contributor Jaideep Singh Bawa. Authors of Chapter 28 were unavailable for updating for the current publication which was updated by K. R. Rao from secondary sources.K. R. Rao has additional chapters covering Global Hydro Power in Chapter 5, Hydro Power in Africa in Chapter 6, Hydro Power in Asia, Middle East and South America in Chapter 7 and Hydro Power in Developing Nations in Chapter 8 and Global Wave and Tidal Energy in Chapter 9. These chapters are based on extensive research of secondary sources of information available in the public domain.Dr. K.R. Rao Editor-in-Chief,Renewable Energy Series.INTRODUCTIONThis fourth book of the ASME’s Renewable Energy Series addresses hydro, wave and tidal energy topics. The primary purpose of this publication is to update the chapters covering these topics in chapters 1, 2, 3 and 4 of this publication which appeared in chapters 11, 12, 13 and 28 by Stephen, Jacobson, Thareja and Gambel et al respectively in the Energy Handbook1. For the sake of completeness about this important topic covering Global Hydro, Wave and Tidal Energy K. R. Rao contributed, based on extensive on-line research, a scholarly and professional treatment of these topics in chapters 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9. In chapter 5 Global Hydro Power Generation, in Chapter 6 Hydro Power in Africa, in Chapter 7 Hydropower of Asia, Mideast, South America, in Chapter 8 Hydropower - Developed Nations and finally in Chapter 9 Global Wave and Tidal Energy are addressed.In chapter 1 “Hydro Power Generation: Global and North American Perspective” of Chapter 11 of 2011 book2 has been updated by Stephen D. Spain in the current publication. The development of dams on rivers, with associated water storage for flood control, irrigation, and “hydropower” combines two of the most fundamental components of Earth, water and gravity to help sustain our survival and improve our lifestyle. This chapter describes the role of hydropower from past to present and into the future. Hydropower has been demonstrated to be a safe, reliable, and renewable energy resource worldwide, essential to the over-all power and energy mix, both traditionally from rivers. Recent and growing development of pumped energy storage from lower to upper water reservoirs and evolving in the future with tidal and wave energy from the oceans has also been covered by the author. The history of hydropower including in the United States, Canada and in Mexico, and hydropower organizations are discussed in detail by Stephen. These discussions also include equipment, hydropower turbines such as Francis, Kaplan, Bulb, Pelton and Pump Turbines. Turbine performance such as turbine rating, power factor and testing are addressed by Stephen in this revised script. Hydroelectric generators, hydroelectric controls, governors and exciters are crucial components included in this write-up. Hydropower for energy storage, ocean and kinetic hydropower are also covered. with the help of 24 schematics, figures, pictures, tables and with extensive 37 references and publications in addition to suggestions for further reading.In chapter 2 “Challenges and Opportunities in Tidal and Wave Power” is updated by Paul T. Jacobson of his chapter 13 of the same topic in 2011 Handbook3 for the current publication. Power generation from waves and tidal currents is a nascent industry with the potential to make globally significant contributions to renewable energy portfolios. Further development and deployment of the related, immature technologies present opportunities to benignly tap large quantities of renewable energy; however, such development and deployment also present numerous engineering, economic, ecological, and sociological challenges. A complex research, development, demonstration, and deployment environment must be skillfully navigated if wave and tidal power are to make significant contributions to national energy portfolios during the next several decades. A striking feature of the wave and tidal power technologies in various stages of development is their number and diversity. Standardized classification of these technologies, as described here, will facilitate their development and deployment. The principal engineering challenge facing development of wave and tidal power devices is design of devices that can survive and operate reliably in the harsh marine environment. A significant advantage of tidal and wave energy conversion, com- pared to wind and photo-voltaic generation, is the ability to forecast the short-term resource availability. Environmental considerations play a large role in ongoing development of the wave and tidal energy industry. The number and novelty of device types, in combination with the ecological diversity among potential deployment sites, creates a complex array of ecological impact scenarios. Efficient means of addressing ecological concerns are in need of further development, so that industry can advance in an environmentally- mentally sound manner. Adaptive management offers a means of moving the industry forward in the face of ecological uncertainty; however, the potential benefits of adaptive management will be realized only if it is implemented in its more scientifically rigorous form known as active adaptive management. The ecological assessment challenge facing the wave and tidal energy industry is to acquire and apply the information needed to ensure that systems, sites, and deployment scales are protective of ecological resources. Stephen D. Spain discusses all of the above in 11 pages many reports have identified the range of environmental issues “Energy and Power Generation - Established and Emerging Technologies” (edited by K. R. Rao, published by ASME in 2011), associated with waves, tidal, and other renewable ocean energy projects. The remaining challenge is to prioritize the issues and address the most pressing ones in a cost-effective manner. For individual projects, this requires definition and evaluation of ques- tions required for site-specific permitting and licensing. For the industry as a whole, this requires identification and acquisition of information that is transferable across projects. Several nontrivial activities are outlined that can be taken to address the large array of outstanding issues. Thus, Jacobson updates his 2011 write-up by addressing resource, wave energy, wave power resource estimates, tidal energy engineering challenges and opportunities, sociological and economic factors, ecological considerations, in addition to sys- tem, siting, scale, adaptive management and assessment challenge. The author uses 105 references along with ten schematics, figures, pictures, and tables, 10 acronyms 3 equations to augment the professional and scholastic treatment of the subject in 11 pages.In chapter 3, “Hydro Power Generation in India - Status and Challenges” of Chapter 12 authored by Dharam Vir Thareja in “Energy and Power Generation Handbook”3 has been updated by Dharam Vir Thareja and Jaideep Singh Bawa in the current publication. In this current update power generation in India which has come a long way from 1.3 GW at the time of independence in 1947 to more than 416 GW in 2022-23, reflecting an increase of more than 300 times is enumerated. The hydropower generation during this period of more than 75 years has increased almost 100 times from less than 0.5 GW to about 52 GW. The annual electric- ity generation in India has increased from about 805 BU during the year 2009-10 to more than 1624 MU during the year 2022-23 and is estimated to be 2280 BU by the 2029-30 time period. The peak power demand of India is also growing unbounded; it was 216 GW during the year 2022-23 and is projected to be 334 GW by 2029-India’s per capita power consumption was 1161 kWh in 2021 and has risen to 1327 kWh in 2023 representing a growth of about 7-8%. However, it is still around one-third of the global average of per capita electricity consumption of about 3100 kWh and is still significantly lower than many of the developing/ developed coun- tries like Iceland (~53 MWh), Norway (~28 MWh), Kuwait (~21 MWh), USA (~12.5 MWh) and ranks amongst the lowest in the world. The successive National Electricity Plans of the Government of India have aimed at access of electricity by all households and increasing efforts are being made by the Government in this direction to resolve all hurdles in the way of last mile connectivity. As a result, the remotest areas of the country are also now get- ting electrified at an increasing pace. Various aspects concerning development of hydropower and pumped storage projects (PSPs) in India including their potential and development status; their role in the system; transmission set-up and status; constitutional & regulatory provisions; development of hydropower in the neighboring countries; the issues, constraints & challenges in hydro power development in the Indian subcontinent are elaborately covered by Thareja and Bawa in this chapter update. Authors address Hydro Power Potential and Growth of Pre-in- dependence development, Post-independence development and Plan-wise hydro capacity addition vs. targets. Also, coverage includes updated need and necessity of hydropower develop- ment in India including optimal generation capacity mix during National Electricity Plan period, 2023 and for the period 2029-30. Advantages of hydro power is discussed with distinct economic and social advantages, synergy with other renewable energies, favorable impact on and resilient to climate change, efficient, flexible and reliable power source. Measures for acceleration of hydro power development, ranking studies, 50,000 mw hydro- electric initiative, and allotment of hydro projects by states are elucidated by authors. Policies conducive for faster development of hydro power such as Electricity Act 2003; National Electric- ity Policy, 2005; Hydro Policy, 2008; Tariff Policy, 2016; National Water Policy; and Government Policy Measures, March 2019 are enumerated. Small hydro development potential and status, insti- tutional mechanism for development of SHP and MNRE subsidy schemes and issues, and constraints are mentioned by authors. Policies of Central and State governments covering potential, development status and fast-tracking of pumped storage projects (PSPs) including financial and project execution capabilities, environmental clearances and economic viability are disseminated by the authors. Transmission implementation, status and challenges are discussed. Constitutional provisions of Water and Power Resources, Regulatory Agencies, Resettlement and Rehabilitation Policies, Details of Project Reports (DPRs), and Cooperation with neighboring countries in Hydro Power Development are elaborated by authors. Response and contribution of private sector, revitalization & modernization, challenges in development of hydro power projects and innovations for future projects are discussed by the Thareja a Bawa in this chapter update. The authors use 8 figures, 19 tables, 1 footnote, and 39 references to supplement the textual discussions in 24 pages.In chapter 4 “Hydro Tasmania — King Island Case Study with an Up-Date” by Simon Gamble, Marian Piekutowski, Ryan Willems and K. R. Rao has been covered. Simon Gamble, Marian Piekutowski, and Ryan Willems authored Chapter 28 in the 2011 Energy and Power Generation Handbook4 which has been included in this book in “to-to” i.e., “complete and whole” and renumbered as chapter 4. Since these contributors are unavailable for the pres- ent effort, editor after thorough investigation and research con- cluded that the Gamble et al contribution is pertinent even today, except that there is a change in management and the editor made appropriate additional coverage to address these the changes as “addendum of chapter 4”. The following paragraphs from 2011 edition pertaining to chapter 4 about a discussion relating to “Hydro Tasmania — King Island Case Study is included as it appeared in the 2011 publication, because it is pertinent. Hydro Tasmania has developed a remote island power system in the Bass Strait, Australia, that achieves a high level of renewable energy penetration through the integration of wind and solar generation with new and innovative storage and enabling technologies. The ongoing development of the power system is focused on reduc- ing or replacing the use of diesel fuel while maintaining power quality and system security in a low inertia system. The projects completed to date include:• Wind farm developments were completed in 1997 and expanded to2.25 MW in 2003.• Installation of a 200-kW, 800-kWh Vanadium Redox Battery (2003).• Installation of a two-axis tracking 100-kW solar photovoltaic array (2008), and• Development of a 1.5-MW dynamic frequency control resistor bank that operates during excessive wind generoation (2010).The results achieved to date include 85% instantaneous renew- able energy penetration and an annual contribution of over 35%, forecast to increase to 45% post commissioning of the resistor. Hydro Tasmania has designed a further innovative program of renewable energy and enabling technology projects. The proposed King Island Renewable Energy Integration Project, which recently received funding support from the Australian Federal Government, is currently under assessment to be rolled out by Hydro Tasmania (including elements with our partners CB Energy) by 2012. These include:• Installation of short-term energy storage (flywheels) to improve system security during periods of high wind.• Reinstatement or replacement of the Vanadium Redox Battery (VRB) that is currently out of service.• Wind expansion — includes increasing the existing farm capacity by up to 4 MW.• Graphite energy storage — installation of graphite block thermal storage units for storing and recovering spilt wind energy.• Biodiesel project — conversion of fuel systems and gen- eration units to operate on B100 (100% biodiesel); and• Smart Grid Development — Demand Side Management establishing the ability to control demand side response through the use of smart metering throughout the Island community. This program of activities aims to achieve a greater than 65% long-term contribution from renewable energy sources (exclud- ing biodiesel contribution), with 100% instantaneous renewable energy penetration. The use of biodiesel will see a 95% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions. The projects will address the follow- ing issues of relevance to small- and large-scale power systems aiming to achieve high levels of renewable energy penetration:• Management of low inertia and low fault level operation.• Effectiveness of short-term storage in managing system security.• Testing alternative system frequency control strategies; and• Impact of demand side management on stabilizing wind energy variability.The authors cover the topic with 5 equations, 12 references along with 16 tables and 23 figures in 23 pages to augment the professional and scholastic treatment of the subject.5 Whereas the above appeared in the ASME’s 2011 “Energy and Power Generation Handbook” pertaining to chapter 286 renum- bered in the current publication as chapter 4, the following is an editorial note updating the “Hydro Tasmania Case Study” by K. R. Rao. The “on line research” by the Editor yielded useful “update” and not a revision, gathered from secondary sources “published in public domain”. The management of King Island Hydro, Tasma- nia, AU changed since the publication of chapter 28 by Gamble et al in 2011. The system provides stable and reliable power around the clock and is able to meet the needs of an entire community, including industrial customers, safely across an extensive distri- bution network. It significantly reduces the use of diesel fuel by 65% per annum, resulting in lower emissions and cost savings. The King Island Renewable Integration Project (KIREIP) was an initiative of Hydro Tasmania, with the assistance of the Australian Renewable Energy Agency (ARENA) to develop a world-leading, hybrid off-grid power system using renewable energy. A number of innovative enabling technologies were developed on the project including an advanced hybrid control system and a rapid (sub sec- ond round trip) smart grid. The hybrid control system was installed over several phases of development to achieve 45 MW of wind generation and 470 kW of solar PV power. The hybrid system includes a 3 MW / 1.5 MWh battery, two 1 MVA flywheels that significantly aid system security and stability, a 1.5 MW dynamic resistor to manage surplus renewable generation, and an aggre- gated customer demand response system to provide additional reserves. ENTURA, the current management company, claims successful delivery of the $18M project.Chapter 5 covering “Global Hydro Power Generation” addressed by K. R. Rao is a new chapter included for an exten- sive treatment of the topic. Hydro power generation, once upon a time considered as the primary source for domestic and indus- trial power is considered today as the secondary source of power generation, mostly because of the natural causes, in addition to the shifting population trends. The coverage in this chapter are aspects of hydropower (HP), shown in the parenthesis are sec- tions where these topics are addressed – Vision, Resources – Dams and Lakes (5.3) including rivers and lakes as reservoirs and conventional dams, types of dams, run of rivers, notable river dams, low-head hydro power and future of rivers and lakes for use as dams. Storage and Hybrid Hydro Energy (5.4), Monitor- ing (5.5), Population Accessibility (5.6) including climate impact, recently constructed hydropower dams, social impacts and social risks in hydropower programs, socio economic impacts, how do urban population growth, dams in the united states and role of international hydropower association have been enumerated by the author. In (5.7) Functionality Indicators, in (5.8) Hydraulic Power Quality and Delivery System, in (5.9) Hydraulic Engineering Problems and Prospects, in (5.10) Pros and Cons, in (5.11) Mod- ernizing HP, in (5.12) Why and How Can US HP be Modernized?, in (5.13) How are other US Enterprises are handling this crucial HP Modernization Problem?, in (5.14) HP Modernization Needs in Asia , in (5.15) HP modernizing in Europe, Alstom to modernize two hydro power plants in Switzerland, in (5.16) HP Moderniza- tion in Canada, in (5.17), Global Hydropower Potential and Future Usage, (5.18), Rapid Changes Coming for HP, (5.19), Objectives of Standard Modular HP and in (5.19) Modular Systems the Future for Hydropower, in (5.20), Objectives Standard Modular Hydro- power (SMH), Standard Modular Hydropower (SMH) Technol- ogy Acceleration, Program Strategic Priorities – Impact, Program Strategic Priorities – Sustainability and finally in (5.21) Sustain- able HP Projection in Brazil, Canada and, New Zealand have been addressed. The author provides statistical evidence from European countries such as Norway, Paraguay, Austria, Switzerland, as well as in Venezuela, and several other countries which have most of the internal electric energy production from hydroelectric power. Paraguay produces 100% of its electricity from hydroelectric dams and exports 90% of its production to Brazil and to Argen- tina. The world’s largest hydropower plant is the 22.5-gigawatt Three Gorges (Sanxia) Dam on China’s Yangtze River in China, which is 1.4 miles (2.3 kilometers) wide and 607 feet (185 meters) high. Globally five countries use hydro power most with installed hydropower capacity for Sweden 16.5 GW., Switzerland 16.8 GW., Vietnam 17.3 GW., Spain 20.4 GW. and Italy 22.6 GW. The largest global consumers of hydropower are China, Brazil, and Canada where total consumption in these countries totaled 12.23 exajoules, four exajoules, and 3.7 exajoules, respectively. Sev- eral provinces in Canada produce over 90 percent of their energy through hydropower. More than 150 countries produce hydroelec- tricity, although around 50% of all hydropower is produced by just four countries. In Norway, for example, 99% of electricity comes from hydropower. China, Brazil, Canada, the United States, and Russia are the five largest producers of hydropower. The world’s largest hydroelectric plant in terms of installed capacity is Three Gorges (Sanxia) on China’s Yangtze River, which is 1.4 miles (2.3 kilometers) wide and 607 feet (185 meters) high. The way hydro power works as a global cycle is that water evaporates from lakes and oceans, forming clouds, precipitating as rain or snow, then flowing back to the ocean. Hydro power is considered renewable energy. since water is the fuel powered by sun to make it an endless recharging process for mechanical tasks such as grinding grain or to produce electricity. The kinetic energy of the flowing water, as it moves downstream, converts energy into electricity with the use of turbines and generators which is fed into the electric grid to reach homes, businesses and industry. Hydro power has several advantages as well as few disadvantages, prominently among the latter are dislocation of the natural habitat, a home to the species of fauna and valuable flora for several decades and centuries. The fish population upstream of the dams can be impacted by the impound- ing of water for reservoirs. Minimum flow of downstream water with low oxygen levels, critical for survival of riparian (riverbank) habitats, can be addressed by oxygenating the water. Additionally, hydropower impacts the local environment, by the loss of local cultures and historical sites. The location of reservoirs and dams uproot the local habitats and human population native to the river- banks and natural water courses. Often competing with other land uses, mostly the houses of several human habitats are uprooted by reservoirs and dams. Most serious impediment for hydro power is the drought conditions causing changing of water courses where dams and reservoirs are located. However, the advantages of power generation for the use of recreation in a carbon free envi- ronment would outweigh other disadvantages. Also, outweighing the disadvantages are the several benefits for accepting hydro- power wherever it is a viable alternative power generation source for countering global warming. Hydropower is “carbon-free” and like wind and solar, it does not directly produce carbon dioxide (CO2) or other greenhouse gases that contribute to climate change. For any nation with hydrological power generation resources, the minimal maintenance costs which can outweigh the large initial construction costs make hydropower a prudent power generation choice. It is pragmatic to take advantage what nature has provided any country for creating carbon dioxide and methane free environ- ment by opting these manmade hydro power generation efforts. The author uses 59 figures, 5 tables with 235 footnotes to elucidate his arguments.In Chapter 6, author K. R. Rao addresses Hydro Power Genera- tion in Africa which can impact immensely the socio-economic life of the inhabitants of the countries in Africa. Chapter 6 deals with Africa’s hydro power problems and prospects impacted by climate evident on the continents’ population. The hydro and wave power potential of the African continent has hardly influenced the allevia- tion of nation’s poverty level. In this chapter the author chronicles the influence of climate, role on the dams and reservoirs, docu- ments people’s problems and prospects, profiles hydro and wave potential for power generation, and the future of both hydro and wave power for Africa and finally their role in sustainability of this continent’s growth. In 6.1 Africa’s hydro power problems and prospects impacted by climate and population are addressed. in 6.2 dams Africa’s rivers and dam are addressed with maps. Top five hydro- power projects in Africa are pictured along with hydropower in East Africa in 6.3. This is followed in 6.4 by a discussion about the prospects and problems of hydro power in Africa. In 6.5 quality and delivery system of hydropower is addressed along with hydro- electric distribution. Modernization of hydropower plants is crucial where the average age of hydroelectric facilities is several decades old which is addressed in 6.6 In 6.7 Modernization of hydropower plants is covered with recommendations to tackle it with private sector and international agencies. Author summarizes this chap- ter 6 with sustainable hydro power projections in 6.8 addressing the sustainability to make Africa adequate with reliable energy to combat water security in South Africa. The author concludes this chapter with an optimistic view of Hydro Power Development and Sustainable Projections in 22 pages, 32 figures ,3 tables, and 101 footnotes.In chapter 7 hydropower of Asia, Mideast and South America have been covered. In section 7.1 K. R. Rao addresses. Hydro- power in East Asia and Pacific region that include China, Australia and Tasmania, Cambodia and Laos, Vietnam, Indonesia, Mongo- lia, Papua New Guinea, Japan, Malaya and the Philippines. In Sec- tion 7.2 K.R. Rao covers South and Central Asia which covers the Indian subcontinent. In section 7.3 hydro power in Mid East and North Africa (MENA) has been elaborately addressed by Sharul Sham Dol and Ahmad Ramahi7 who show that renewable energy is pivotal in combating climate change and promoting sustainable development. The urgency to transition from fossil fuels to renew- able energy sources is particularly pronounced in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region. The impacts of climate change intensified by high temperatures, water scarcity, and increasing energy demands are pronounced in this MENA region. Hydro, wave, and tidal power generation present significant opportunities for the MENA region to diversify its energy portfolio, reduce green- house gas emissions, and enhance energy security. The relevance of hydro, wave, and tidal energy in the MENA region stems from their potential to provide clean, dependable, and sustainable power. Hydro power, which harnesses the energy of flowing or falling water, is a well-established technology with significant potential in countries with suitable river systems and dam infrastructure. Wave and tidal energy, which capture the kinetic energy of ocean waves and tidal currents, offer a predictable and consistent source of power, particularly for coastal nations. The energy landscape in the MENA region is characterized by a heavy reliance on fossil fuels, with oil and natural gas accounting for a significant portion of the energy mix. However, there is a growing recognition of the need to transition to renewable energy sources. Several MENA countries have set ambitious renewable energy targets and launched initia- tives to promote clean energy. For instance, the United Arab Emir- ates (UAE) has outlined its Vision 2021 and Energy Strategy 2050, which emphasize the integration of renewable energy, including hydro, wave, and tidal power, into the national energy mix. Simi- larly, Morocco has invested in hydro power projects to enhance its renewable energy capacity and reduce dependence on fossil fuels. Hydro power projects in the MENA region have the potential to significantly contribute to the region’s energy needs. For example, the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD) on the Blue Nile is poised to become a major source of hydroelectric power, with implications for regional energy security and cooperation. How- ever, the availability of suitable sites and water resources remains a challenge in arid and semi-arid regions like MENA. Wave and tidal energy also hold promise for the MENA region. Coastal nations such as Morocco and the UAE are exploring the viability of these technologies through research and pilot projects. The UAE has made significant strides in tidal power development, involving detailed modeling of tidal flows and optimization of energy cap- ture mechanisms. These efforts highlight the potential of marine renewable energy to complement other renewable sources and contribute to a more sustainable energy future. Sharul Sham Dol and Ahmad Ramahi discuss the current state, on-going projects and the potential of hydro power in MENA region, the geographic locations, technical and financial challenges and opportunities, policy support, international collaborations, economic benefits of hydro, wave, and tidal power in MENA are exemplified with 17 references. Finally, in section 7.4 K. R. Rao has covered the hydro power in South America addressing the regional outlook, policy and market overview, latest hydropower developments as well as countries to watch for hydropower development in South America. Authors cover this chapter in 19 pages; 22 figures; 4 tables; 17 references and 122 footnotes.In Chapter 8_Hydropower of Developed Nations is addressed by K. R. Rao stating that normally the items addressed in each of the preceding chapters by the author are sequentially (a) Climate & Population; (b) Hydraulic Electricity & Power Resources -Rivers & Dams; (c) Hydraulic Engineering and Electricity -Problems and Prospects; (d) Hydraulic Power Quality and Delivery System; (e)_ Hydraulic Electricity Distribution; (f) Hydraulic Power Modern- ization and Development; and finally (g) Sustainable Hydropower Projections. However, since several of these items have been cov- ered in previous chapters, only topics germane to this chapter on “Hydropower of Developed Nations” are dealt with in accordance to their importance starting with Global Perspective, Global Hydro Power and Climate Changes, Overall Objective of the Sustain- ability, Hydropower in Australasia and Oceana, Hydropower in Europe, Hydro Power Initiative in Canada and USA. While cov- ering the hydropower of these geographical terrains, the author emphasizes specifically the technology advancement of hydro- power, sustainable development and operation, enhanced revenue and market structure, regulatory process optimization, heightened collaboration, education, and outreach. This chapter is covered in 10 pages, 18 figures,2 tables and 55 footnotes.Global wave and tidal energy is covered in chapter 9 by K. R. Rao. Marine Energy is not necessarily same as Ocean Power. Marine energy can be created in the ocean as also in rivers, lakes, streams, estuaries, and more. The difference between ocean energy and tidal energy is that tidal energy uses gravitational pull of earth, moon and sun to produce energy whereas wave energy uses kinetic forces of waves to generate electricity. The tides at shore- lines of oceans will rise and fall twice a day. Marine energy or marine power is also referred to as ocean energy, ocean power, or marine and hydrokinetic energy. energy refer to the energy carried by ocean waves, tides salinity, and ocean temperature differences. The movement of water in the world’s oceans creates a vast store of kinetic energy, or energy in motion. Some of this energy can be harnessed to generate electricity to power homes, transport and industries. The term marine energy encompasses both wave power i.e., power from surface waves, and tidal power obtained from the kinetic energy of large bodies of moving water. The oceans have a tremendous amount of energy and are close to many if not most concentrated populations. Ocean energy has the potential of pro- viding a substantial amount of new renewable energy around the world. substantial amount of renewable energy around the world. Marine currents can carry large amounts of water, largely driven by the tides, which are a consequence of the gravitational effects of the planetary motion of the Earth, the Moon and the Sun. Augmented flow velocities can be found where the underwater topography in straits between islands and the mainland or in shallows around headlands plays a major role in enhancing the flow velocities, resulting in appreciable kinetic energy. The Sun acts as the primary driving force, causing winds and temperature differences. Because there are only small fluctuations in current speed and stream loca- tion with minimal changes in direction, ocean currents may be suit- able locations for deploying energy extraction devices such as tur- bines. Other effects such as regional differences in temperature and salinity and the Coriolis effect. An effect whereby a mass moving in a rotating system experiences a force (the Coriolis force) acting perpendicular to the direction of motion and to the axis of rotation. On the earth, the effect tends to deflect moving objects to the right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern and is important in the formation of cyclonic weather systems. See due to the rotation of the earth are also major influences. The kinetic energy of marine currents can be converted in much the same way that a wind turbine extracts energy from the wind, using various types of open-flow rotors. Strong ocean currents are generated from a combination of temperature, wind, salinity, bathymetry, and the rotation of the Earth. Ocean currents are instrumental in deter- mining the climate in many regions around the world. While little is known about the effects of removing ocean current energy, the impacts of removing current energy on the near field and environ- ments may be significant environmental concerns. The typical tur- bine issues with blade strike, entanglement of marine organisms, and acoustic effects still exists; however, these may be magnified due to the presence of more diverse populations of marine organ- isms using ocean currents for migration purposes. Locations can be further offshore and therefore require longer power cables that could affect the marine environment with electromagnetic output. Environmental effects global potential of ocean, wave and tidal energy are discussed in this chapter. The exhaustive coverage of this chapter by the author is extremely comprehensive. Physical Concepts, Classification, Characteristics, including Longitudinal Wave Motion, Path and Wave Differences such as Periodic Wave and Orbital Motion of waves have been covered. Classification of Wave Power, Wave Energy Repercussions, Wave Energy Equations, Wave Energy Flux, Airy Wave Theory Gravity Waves Airy equations Linear Potential Flow Theory are addressed. The author covers the Wave Power Formula, Wave Energy Con- verters, Point Absorber Bouy, Surface Attenuator, Oscillating Wave Surge Converter, Oscillating Water Column, Overtopping Device. Pressure Differential, Floating In-Air Converters, Wave Farms, Modern Technology. Challenges and opportunities, Pros and Cons, Technological Rationale, Systems, Types, Scale and Size, Sociological and Eco- nomic Component, Economic- Financial Implications A Global Picture, Ecological and Environmental Considerations, Global Applications of Wave Energy are enumerated. Listing of Global Wave Energy Projects, List of wave power stations, Location of Global Wave Energy with Case Study Reports of Tidal Energy, Ocean Waves, Tidal vs. Wind Energy, Differences of Wave and Tidal Power, Use of Wave and Tidal Energy, Potential of Tidal Energy for Global Use are described. Characteristics of Tidal Energy, Types of Tidal Energy. Meth- ods of Tidal Energy, Principles of Tidal Energy. Ecological and Environment Considerations, Sociological and Economic Ratio- nale, Technical and Legal Ramifications, Challenges and Oppor- tunities, Listing Global Tidal Facilities, Global Ramifications are covered that include Africa, East & South Asia, Mideast, S. Amer- ica, Developed Countries - Europe, The US and Canada. Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC), Sustainable Future of Wave Energy, Thermodynamics and a rigorous treatment of OTEC are paraphrased. A 20 °C temperature difference will pro- vide as much energy as a hydroelectric plant with 34 m head for the same volume of water flow. The low temperature difference means that water volumes must be very large to extract useful amounts of heat. A 100 MW power plant would be expected to pump in the order of 12 million gallons (44,400 metric tons) per minute. This makes pumping a substantial parasitic drain on energy pro- duction in OTEC systems, with one Lockheed design consuming 19.55 MW in pumping costs for every 49.8 MW net electricity generated, making them one of the most critical components due to their impact on overall efficiency. A 100 MW OTEC power plant would require 200 exchangers each larger than a 20-foot shipping container making them the single most expensive component.327 MW OTEC power plant would require 200 exchangers each larger than a 20-foot shipping container making them the single most expensive component. Sustainability and Future Ocean current energy and its potential are discussed. The oceans contain several steady currents such as the Benguela and the Agulhas currents. Turbines fixed or sus- pended to the ocean floor can harvest the kinetic energy of currents and convert it to electricity that is brought to the coast through underwater cables. The technology can be used in locations where a current is close to the coast such as the Agulhas current along the east coast of South Africa. This technology has been piloted in the Gulf Stream off the coast of Florida in the USA and in Norway. An assessment of ocean currents off South Africa’s coast found that the Agulhas current travels swiftly enough for harvesting energy. It is also relatively close to the surface at less than 200m depth. The study estimates the overall power of the current as between 21 and 27GW but cautions that the useable power is significantly less due to ship traffic interference etcetera.In hot climates, oceans absorb a very large amount of heat from the sun and store it in the upper layers of water. OTEC uses the temperature difference between deep cold water and warmer water close to the surface to run a heat engine and produce useful energy, usually in the form of electricity. At present the use of ocean energy is mainly at the prototype stage, although some companies have set up commercial scale applications. One of the recent achievements is the RITE Project on the East River, New York, NY which is a proof of the ability to create profitable and sustainable projects. A White Paper on Wave Energy Potential on the U.S. Outer Conti- nental Shelf has been widely circulated such as in the U.S. Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) publications.Ocean waves represent a form of renewable energy created by wind currents passing over open water. Capturing the energy of ocean waves in offshore locations has been demonstrated as tech- nically feasible to develop improved designs of wave energy con- version (WEC) devices in regions such as near the Oregon coast, which is a high wave energy resource. Compared with other forms of offshore renewable energy, ocean current and wave energy although continuous are highly variable but can be confidently pre- dicted several days in advance. The offshore ocean wave energy resource, as a derivative form of solar energy, has considerable potential for making a significant contribution to the alternative usable energy supply. The total average wave energy at a depth of 60 m off the U.S. coastlines, including Alaska and Hawaii, has been estimated at 2,100 TWh/yr. In the past several decades, vari- ous designs have been developed and tested to capture this energy resource, and several are now moving toward commercial prototype testing. On the basis of currently available empirical informa- tion, the environmental impacts are expected to be small; however, as with any emerging technology, unknowns still exist with respect to environmental impacts, and careful monitoring and assessment are required. This chapter has a coverage of 56 pages with 16 equations, 10 tables, 70 figures and 333 footnotes.
CONTENTSDedication xiAcknowledgements xiiiContributing Biographies xvPreface xixIntroduction xxiiCHAPTER 1: HYDRO POWER: GLOBAL AND NORTH AMERICAN PERSPECTIVES 1Stephen D. Spain1.1 INTRODUCTION TO HYDROPOWER 11.2 HISTORY OF HYDROPOWER 11.3 HYDROPOWER IN THE UNITED STATES 21.4 HYDROPOWER IN CANADA 51.5 HYDROPOWER IN MEXICO 51.6 HYDROPOWER WORLDWIDE 51.7 HYDROPOWER EQUIPMENT 51.8 TURBINE RATING AND POWER FACTOR 81.9 TURBINE PERFORMANCE TESTING 81.10 HYDROELECTRIC GENERATORS 81.11 HYDROELECTRIC CONTROLS 81.12 HYDROPOWER FOR ENERGY STORAGE 91.13 OCEAN AND KINETIC HYDROPOWER 101.14 THE FUTURE OF HYDROPOWER 131.15 FURTHER READING 141.16 ADDITIONAL RESOURCES 151.17 REFERENCES 16CHAPTER 2: CHALLENGES and OPPORTUNITIES in TIDAL and WAVE POWE 17Paul T. JacobsonABSTRACT 172.1 INTRODUCTION 172.2 THE RESOURCE 182.3 ENGINEERING CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES 202.4 SOCIOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC FACTORS 212.5 ECOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS 222.6 SUMMARY 232.7 ACRONYMS 242.8 REFERENCES 24CHAPTER 3: HYDRO POWER GENERATION IN INDIA –STATUS AND CHALLENGES 27Dharam Vir Thareja & Jaideep Singh Bawa3.1 INTRODUCTION 273.2 INSTALLED CAPACITY 283.3 HYDRO POWER POTENTIAL 283.4 GROWTH OF HYDRO POWER 293.5 NEED AND NECESSITY OF HYDROPOWER DEVELOPMENT 313.6 ADVANTAGES OF HYDRO POWER 323.7 MEASURES FOR ACCELERATION OF HYDRO POWER DEVELOPMENT 333.8 POLICIES CONDUCIVE FOR FASTER DEVELOPMENT OF HYDRO POWER 353.9 SMALL HYDRO DEVELOPMENT 363.10 RE POLICY OF CENTRAL / STATE GOVTS 383.11 PUMPED STORAGE DEVELOPMENTS 383.12 TRANSMISSION, SET-UP AND STATUS 413.13 CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS OF WATER & POWER RESOURCES 433.14 REGULATORY AGENCIES 433.15 RESETTLEMENT AND REHABILITATION POLICIES 433.16 APPRAISAL AND CLEARANCE OF DPRS 443.17 COOPERATION WITH NEIGHBOURING COUNTRIES 473.18 RESPONSE & ACHIEVEMENT OF PRIVATE SECTOR 473.19 RENOVATION & MODERNISATION (R&M) 483.20 ISSUES, CONSTRAINTS AND CHALLENGES IN DEVELOPMENT OF HYDRO PROJECTS 483.21 INNOVATIONS FOR FUTURE PROJECTS 513.22 CONCLUSIONS 513.23 ACRONYMS 523.24 REFERENCES & GOVERNMENT OF INDIA WEBSITES (IN PUBLIC DOMAIN) 53CHAPTER 4: HYDRO TASMANIA — KING ISLAND CASE STUDY WITH AN UP-DATE 55Simon Gamble, Marian Piekutowski, Ryan Willems And K. R. RaoABSTRACT 554.1 INTRODUCTION 554.2 THE KING ISLAND RENEWABLE ENERGY INTEGRATION PROJECT 574.3 OFF-GRID POWER SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT 584.4 KING ISLAND POWER SYSTEM OVERVIEW 614.5 PERFORMANCE OF RENEWAL ENERGY DEVELOPMENTS 654.6 ASSESMENT OF BENEFITS 674.7 KING ISLAND PROPOSED DEVELOPMENTS 724.8 CONCLUSIONS 784.9 REFERENCES 784.10 UPDATED INFORMATION FOR CHAPTER 4 BY K. R. RAO 78Chapter 5: HYDRO POWER GENERATION 79K. R. Rao5.1 INTRODUCTION 795.2 HYDRO POWER VISION. 805.3 HYDRO POWER RESOURCES – DAMS AND LAKES 815.4 HYDROPOWER STORAGE AND HYBRID HYDRO ENERGY 875.5 HYDROPOWER MONITORING 905.6 POPULATION ACCESSIBILITY TO HYDROPOWER GENERATION 905.7 CLIMATE IMPACT ON HP GENERATION 945.8 FUNCTIONALITY INDICATORS FOR HYDROPOWER. 965.9 HYDRAULIC POWER QUALITY AND DELIVERY SYSTEM. 965.10 HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS. -PROS AND CONS. 985.11 MODERNIZING HYDRO POWER (HP) 1015.12 WHY AND HOW CAN US HYDRO POWER (HP) BE MODERNIZED? 1015.13 HOW ARE OTHER US ENTERPRISES HANDLING THIS CRUCIAL HP MODERNIZATION PROBLEM? 1015.14 HYDROPOWER MODERNIZATION NEEDS IN ASIA 1025.15 ASSESSING THE ENERGY POTENTIAL OF MODERNIZING THE EUROPEAN HYDROPOWER FLEET 1045.16 HOW HYDRO MODERNIZATION SUPPORTS CANADIAN RENEWABLE ENERGY OBJECTIVES 1055.17 GLOBAL HYDROPOWER POTENTIAL AND FUTURE USAGE 1065.18 RAPID CHANGES ARE COMING FOR HYDROPOWER 1075.19 OBJECTIVES STANDARD MODULAR HYDROPOWER (SMH) 1105.20 ARE MODULAR SYSTEMS THE FUTURE FOR HYDROPOWER? 1135.21 SUSTAINABLE HYDRO POWER PROJECTION. 114CHAPTER 6 HYDRO POWER - AFRICA 121K. R. RAO6.1 AFRICA’S HYDRO POWER PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS IMPACTED BY CLIMATE AND POPULATION 1216.2 AFRICA’S RIVERS AND DAMS 1236.3 PROSPECTS AND PROBLEMS OF HYDRO POWER IN AFRICA: 1266.4 QUALITY AND DELIVERY SYSTEM OF HYDROPOWER IN AFRICA. 1276.5 HYDROELECTRIC DISTRIBUTION IN AFRICA 1306.6 MODERNIZATION OF HYDROPOWER PLANTS IN AFRICA. 1326.7 SUSTAINABLE HYDRO PROJECTIONS 136CHAPTER 7: HYDROPOWER OF ASIA, MIDEAST, SOUTH AMERICA 1417.0 INTRODUCTION 1417.1 HYDRO POWER EAST ASIA AND PACIFIC REGION 1417.2 HYDRO POWER IN SOUTH AND CENTRAL ASIA 144 7.3 HYDRO POWER MID EAST (MENA) 1487.4 HYDRO POWER SOUTH AMERICA 154CHAPTER 8_HYDROPOWER - DEVELOPED NATIONS 161K. R. Rao8.1 GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE 1618.2 HYDROPOWER AUSTRALASIA AND OCEANA 1628.3 HYDROPOWER IN EUROPE 1638.4 HYDRO POWER INITIATIVE IN CANADA 1668.5 USA 167CHAPTER 9_ GLOBAL WAVE and TIDAL ENERGY 171K. R. Rao9.1 INTRODCUTION 1739.2 WAVE ENERGY 1779.3 CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES OF WE 1869.4 TIDAL ENERGY 1969.5 OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY CONVERSION (OETC308) 2199.6 SUSTAINABILITY AND FUTURE 224Index 225DEDICATIONThis Hydro, Wave and Tidal Energy Applications book is dedicated to:
Padma Bhushan Late Dr. K. L. Rao, “Father of Irrigation and Power in India”, under whom I started my professional engineering career, however short it may be. This book is dedicated to acknowledge very humbly Dr. Rao’s intervention which was solely responsible for my coming to the US for the doctoral fellowship, otherwise my career would have definitely taken a different course.Late Dr. Robert Toll Norman my doctoral advisor who guided me a ‘math major engineer from India’ to write with the result this happens to be my twenty fifth ‘high-tech’ engineering book, either edited or authored by me, several of them ending up as “classics”.Late Mr. VRP Rao, Fellow-IE for encouraging in me interest in taking up these “renewable energy projects”, “other than nuclear,” in whichI was engaged for two decades.Late Dr. Byra Gowda, Fellow ASME, Pittsburgh, PA for involving me in ASME, in the late 1980s.Dr. K.R. Rao Editor-in-ChiefRenewable Energy SeriesPREFACEAs previously noted, three books covering Solar, Biomass and Waste Energy and Wind Energy precede this publication in the ASME’s Renewable Energy Series. This fourth book of the ASME’s Renewable Energy Series Updates Hydro, Wave and Tidal Energy Resources around the globe which were addressed in chapters 11, 12, 13 and 18 of the “Energy and Power Generation Handbook”, published by ASME in 2011.In the 2011 Handbook in chapter 11 Stephen D. Spain covered Hydro Power Generation: Global and US Perspective; in chapter 12, Hydro. Power Generation in India – Status and Challenges has been addressed by Dharam Vir Thareja; Challenges and Opportunities in Tidal and Wave Power was covered by Paul T. Jacobson in chapter 13, and Hydro Tasmania - King Island case study was authored by Simon Gamble, Marian Piekutowski and Ryan Willems in chapter 28.In the current publication titled “Hydro, Wave and Tidal Energy Applications” Chapters 11, 12 and 13 had been updated by Stephen D. Spain, Dharam Vir Thareja and Jaideep Singh Bawa and Paul T. Jacobson in chapters 1, 2 and 3 respectively. In chapter 3 Thareja is joined by a new contributor Jaideep Singh Bawa. Authors of Chapter 28 were unavailable for updating for the current publication which was updated by K. R. Rao from secondary sources.K. R. Rao has additional chapters covering Global Hydro Power in Chapter 5, Hydro Power in Africa in Chapter 6, Hydro Power in Asia, Middle East and South America in Chapter 7 and Hydro Power in Developing Nations in Chapter 8 and Global Wave and Tidal Energy in Chapter 9. These chapters are based on extensive research of secondary sources of information available in the public domain.Dr. K.R. Rao Editor-in-Chief,Renewable Energy Series.INTRODUCTIONThis fourth book of the ASME’s Renewable Energy Series addresses hydro, wave and tidal energy topics. The primary purpose of this publication is to update the chapters covering these topics in chapters 1, 2, 3 and 4 of this publication which appeared in chapters 11, 12, 13 and 28 by Stephen, Jacobson, Thareja and Gambel et al respectively in the Energy Handbook1. For the sake of completeness about this important topic covering Global Hydro, Wave and Tidal Energy K. R. Rao contributed, based on extensive on-line research, a scholarly and professional treatment of these topics in chapters 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9. In chapter 5 Global Hydro Power Generation, in Chapter 6 Hydro Power in Africa, in Chapter 7 Hydropower of Asia, Mideast, South America, in Chapter 8 Hydropower - Developed Nations and finally in Chapter 9 Global Wave and Tidal Energy are addressed.In chapter 1 “Hydro Power Generation: Global and North American Perspective” of Chapter 11 of 2011 book2 has been updated by Stephen D. Spain in the current publication. The development of dams on rivers, with associated water storage for flood control, irrigation, and “hydropower” combines two of the most fundamental components of Earth, water and gravity to help sustain our survival and improve our lifestyle. This chapter describes the role of hydropower from past to present and into the future. Hydropower has been demonstrated to be a safe, reliable, and renewable energy resource worldwide, essential to the over-all power and energy mix, both traditionally from rivers. Recent and growing development of pumped energy storage from lower to upper water reservoirs and evolving in the future with tidal and wave energy from the oceans has also been covered by the author. The history of hydropower including in the United States, Canada and in Mexico, and hydropower organizations are discussed in detail by Stephen. These discussions also include equipment, hydropower turbines such as Francis, Kaplan, Bulb, Pelton and Pump Turbines. Turbine performance such as turbine rating, power factor and testing are addressed by Stephen in this revised script. Hydroelectric generators, hydroelectric controls, governors and exciters are crucial components included in this write-up. Hydropower for energy storage, ocean and kinetic hydropower are also covered. with the help of 24 schematics, figures, pictures, tables and with extensive 37 references and publications in addition to suggestions for further reading.In chapter 2 “Challenges and Opportunities in Tidal and Wave Power” is updated by Paul T. Jacobson of his chapter 13 of the same topic in 2011 Handbook3 for the current publication. Power generation from waves and tidal currents is a nascent industry with the potential to make globally significant contributions to renewable energy portfolios. Further development and deployment of the related, immature technologies present opportunities to benignly tap large quantities of renewable energy; however, such development and deployment also present numerous engineering, economic, ecological, and sociological challenges. A complex research, development, demonstration, and deployment environment must be skillfully navigated if wave and tidal power are to make significant contributions to national energy portfolios during the next several decades. A striking feature of the wave and tidal power technologies in various stages of development is their number and diversity. Standardized classification of these technologies, as described here, will facilitate their development and deployment. The principal engineering challenge facing development of wave and tidal power devices is design of devices that can survive and operate reliably in the harsh marine environment. A significant advantage of tidal and wave energy conversion, com- pared to wind and photo-voltaic generation, is the ability to forecast the short-term resource availability. Environmental considerations play a large role in ongoing development of the wave and tidal energy industry. The number and novelty of device types, in combination with the ecological diversity among potential deployment sites, creates a complex array of ecological impact scenarios. Efficient means of addressing ecological concerns are in need of further development, so that industry can advance in an environmentally- mentally sound manner. Adaptive management offers a means of moving the industry forward in the face of ecological uncertainty; however, the potential benefits of adaptive management will be realized only if it is implemented in its more scientifically rigorous form known as active adaptive management. The ecological assessment challenge facing the wave and tidal energy industry is to acquire and apply the information needed to ensure that systems, sites, and deployment scales are protective of ecological resources. Stephen D. Spain discusses all of the above in 11 pages many reports have identified the range of environmental issues “Energy and Power Generation - Established and Emerging Technologies” (edited by K. R. Rao, published by ASME in 2011), associated with waves, tidal, and other renewable ocean energy projects. The remaining challenge is to prioritize the issues and address the most pressing ones in a cost-effective manner. For individual projects, this requires definition and evaluation of ques- tions required for site-specific permitting and licensing. For the industry as a whole, this requires identification and acquisition of information that is transferable across projects. Several nontrivial activities are outlined that can be taken to address the large array of outstanding issues. Thus, Jacobson updates his 2011 write-up by addressing resource, wave energy, wave power resource estimates, tidal energy engineering challenges and opportunities, sociological and economic factors, ecological considerations, in addition to sys- tem, siting, scale, adaptive management and assessment challenge. The author uses 105 references along with ten schematics, figures, pictures, and tables, 10 acronyms 3 equations to augment the professional and scholastic treatment of the subject in 11 pages.In chapter 3, “Hydro Power Generation in India - Status and Challenges” of Chapter 12 authored by Dharam Vir Thareja in “Energy and Power Generation Handbook”3 has been updated by Dharam Vir Thareja and Jaideep Singh Bawa in the current publication. In this current update power generation in India which has come a long way from 1.3 GW at the time of independence in 1947 to more than 416 GW in 2022-23, reflecting an increase of more than 300 times is enumerated. The hydropower generation during this period of more than 75 years has increased almost 100 times from less than 0.5 GW to about 52 GW. The annual electric- ity generation in India has increased from about 805 BU during the year 2009-10 to more than 1624 MU during the year 2022-23 and is estimated to be 2280 BU by the 2029-30 time period. The peak power demand of India is also growing unbounded; it was 216 GW during the year 2022-23 and is projected to be 334 GW by 2029-India’s per capita power consumption was 1161 kWh in 2021 and has risen to 1327 kWh in 2023 representing a growth of about 7-8%. However, it is still around one-third of the global average of per capita electricity consumption of about 3100 kWh and is still significantly lower than many of the developing/ developed coun- tries like Iceland (~53 MWh), Norway (~28 MWh), Kuwait (~21 MWh), USA (~12.5 MWh) and ranks amongst the lowest in the world. The successive National Electricity Plans of the Government of India have aimed at access of electricity by all households and increasing efforts are being made by the Government in this direction to resolve all hurdles in the way of last mile connectivity. As a result, the remotest areas of the country are also now get- ting electrified at an increasing pace. Various aspects concerning development of hydropower and pumped storage projects (PSPs) in India including their potential and development status; their role in the system; transmission set-up and status; constitutional & regulatory provisions; development of hydropower in the neighboring countries; the issues, constraints & challenges in hydro power development in the Indian subcontinent are elaborately covered by Thareja and Bawa in this chapter update. Authors address Hydro Power Potential and Growth of Pre-in- dependence development, Post-independence development and Plan-wise hydro capacity addition vs. targets. Also, coverage includes updated need and necessity of hydropower develop- ment in India including optimal generation capacity mix during National Electricity Plan period, 2023 and for the period 2029-30. Advantages of hydro power is discussed with distinct economic and social advantages, synergy with other renewable energies, favorable impact on and resilient to climate change, efficient, flexible and reliable power source. Measures for acceleration of hydro power development, ranking studies, 50,000 mw hydro- electric initiative, and allotment of hydro projects by states are elucidated by authors. Policies conducive for faster development of hydro power such as Electricity Act 2003; National Electric- ity Policy, 2005; Hydro Policy, 2008; Tariff Policy, 2016; National Water Policy; and Government Policy Measures, March 2019 are enumerated. Small hydro development potential and status, insti- tutional mechanism for development of SHP and MNRE subsidy schemes and issues, and constraints are mentioned by authors. Policies of Central and State governments covering potential, development status and fast-tracking of pumped storage projects (PSPs) including financial and project execution capabilities, environmental clearances and economic viability are disseminated by the authors. Transmission implementation, status and challenges are discussed. Constitutional provisions of Water and Power Resources, Regulatory Agencies, Resettlement and Rehabilitation Policies, Details of Project Reports (DPRs), and Cooperation with neighboring countries in Hydro Power Development are elaborated by authors. Response and contribution of private sector, revitalization & modernization, challenges in development of hydro power projects and innovations for future projects are discussed by the Thareja a Bawa in this chapter update. The authors use 8 figures, 19 tables, 1 footnote, and 39 references to supplement the textual discussions in 24 pages.In chapter 4 “Hydro Tasmania — King Island Case Study with an Up-Date” by Simon Gamble, Marian Piekutowski, Ryan Willems and K. R. Rao has been covered. Simon Gamble, Marian Piekutowski, and Ryan Willems authored Chapter 28 in the 2011 Energy and Power Generation Handbook4 which has been included in this book in “to-to” i.e., “complete and whole” and renumbered as chapter 4. Since these contributors are unavailable for the pres- ent effort, editor after thorough investigation and research con- cluded that the Gamble et al contribution is pertinent even today, except that there is a change in management and the editor made appropriate additional coverage to address these the changes as “addendum of chapter 4”. The following paragraphs from 2011 edition pertaining to chapter 4 about a discussion relating to “Hydro Tasmania — King Island Case Study is included as it appeared in the 2011 publication, because it is pertinent. Hydro Tasmania has developed a remote island power system in the Bass Strait, Australia, that achieves a high level of renewable energy penetration through the integration of wind and solar generation with new and innovative storage and enabling technologies. The ongoing development of the power system is focused on reduc- ing or replacing the use of diesel fuel while maintaining power quality and system security in a low inertia system. The projects completed to date include:• Wind farm developments were completed in 1997 and expanded to2.25 MW in 2003.• Installation of a 200-kW, 800-kWh Vanadium Redox Battery (2003).• Installation of a two-axis tracking 100-kW solar photovoltaic array (2008), and• Development of a 1.5-MW dynamic frequency control resistor bank that operates during excessive wind generoation (2010).The results achieved to date include 85% instantaneous renew- able energy penetration and an annual contribution of over 35%, forecast to increase to 45% post commissioning of the resistor. Hydro Tasmania has designed a further innovative program of renewable energy and enabling technology projects. The proposed King Island Renewable Energy Integration Project, which recently received funding support from the Australian Federal Government, is currently under assessment to be rolled out by Hydro Tasmania (including elements with our partners CB Energy) by 2012. These include:• Installation of short-term energy storage (flywheels) to improve system security during periods of high wind.• Reinstatement or replacement of the Vanadium Redox Battery (VRB) that is currently out of service.• Wind expansion — includes increasing the existing farm capacity by up to 4 MW.• Graphite energy storage — installation of graphite block thermal storage units for storing and recovering spilt wind energy.• Biodiesel project — conversion of fuel systems and gen- eration units to operate on B100 (100% biodiesel); and• Smart Grid Development — Demand Side Management establishing the ability to control demand side response through the use of smart metering throughout the Island community. This program of activities aims to achieve a greater than 65% long-term contribution from renewable energy sources (exclud- ing biodiesel contribution), with 100% instantaneous renewable energy penetration. The use of biodiesel will see a 95% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions. The projects will address the follow- ing issues of relevance to small- and large-scale power systems aiming to achieve high levels of renewable energy penetration:• Management of low inertia and low fault level operation.• Effectiveness of short-term storage in managing system security.• Testing alternative system frequency control strategies; and• Impact of demand side management on stabilizing wind energy variability.The authors cover the topic with 5 equations, 12 references along with 16 tables and 23 figures in 23 pages to augment the professional and scholastic treatment of the subject.5 Whereas the above appeared in the ASME’s 2011 “Energy and Power Generation Handbook” pertaining to chapter 286 renum- bered in the current publication as chapter 4, the following is an editorial note updating the “Hydro Tasmania Case Study” by K. R. Rao. The “on line research” by the Editor yielded useful “update” and not a revision, gathered from secondary sources “published in public domain”. The management of King Island Hydro, Tasma- nia, AU changed since the publication of chapter 28 by Gamble et al in 2011. The system provides stable and reliable power around the clock and is able to meet the needs of an entire community, including industrial customers, safely across an extensive distri- bution network. It significantly reduces the use of diesel fuel by 65% per annum, resulting in lower emissions and cost savings. The King Island Renewable Integration Project (KIREIP) was an initiative of Hydro Tasmania, with the assistance of the Australian Renewable Energy Agency (ARENA) to develop a world-leading, hybrid off-grid power system using renewable energy. A number of innovative enabling technologies were developed on the project including an advanced hybrid control system and a rapid (sub sec- ond round trip) smart grid. The hybrid control system was installed over several phases of development to achieve 45 MW of wind generation and 470 kW of solar PV power. The hybrid system includes a 3 MW / 1.5 MWh battery, two 1 MVA flywheels that significantly aid system security and stability, a 1.5 MW dynamic resistor to manage surplus renewable generation, and an aggre- gated customer demand response system to provide additional reserves. ENTURA, the current management company, claims successful delivery of the $18M project.Chapter 5 covering “Global Hydro Power Generation” addressed by K. R. Rao is a new chapter included for an exten- sive treatment of the topic. Hydro power generation, once upon a time considered as the primary source for domestic and indus- trial power is considered today as the secondary source of power generation, mostly because of the natural causes, in addition to the shifting population trends. The coverage in this chapter are aspects of hydropower (HP), shown in the parenthesis are sec- tions where these topics are addressed – Vision, Resources – Dams and Lakes (5.3) including rivers and lakes as reservoirs and conventional dams, types of dams, run of rivers, notable river dams, low-head hydro power and future of rivers and lakes for use as dams. Storage and Hybrid Hydro Energy (5.4), Monitor- ing (5.5), Population Accessibility (5.6) including climate impact, recently constructed hydropower dams, social impacts and social risks in hydropower programs, socio economic impacts, how do urban population growth, dams in the united states and role of international hydropower association have been enumerated by the author. In (5.7) Functionality Indicators, in (5.8) Hydraulic Power Quality and Delivery System, in (5.9) Hydraulic Engineering Problems and Prospects, in (5.10) Pros and Cons, in (5.11) Mod- ernizing HP, in (5.12) Why and How Can US HP be Modernized?, in (5.13) How are other US Enterprises are handling this crucial HP Modernization Problem?, in (5.14) HP Modernization Needs in Asia , in (5.15) HP modernizing in Europe, Alstom to modernize two hydro power plants in Switzerland, in (5.16) HP Moderniza- tion in Canada, in (5.17), Global Hydropower Potential and Future Usage, (5.18), Rapid Changes Coming for HP, (5.19), Objectives of Standard Modular HP and in (5.19) Modular Systems the Future for Hydropower, in (5.20), Objectives Standard Modular Hydro- power (SMH), Standard Modular Hydropower (SMH) Technol- ogy Acceleration, Program Strategic Priorities – Impact, Program Strategic Priorities – Sustainability and finally in (5.21) Sustain- able HP Projection in Brazil, Canada and, New Zealand have been addressed. The author provides statistical evidence from European countries such as Norway, Paraguay, Austria, Switzerland, as well as in Venezuela, and several other countries which have most of the internal electric energy production from hydroelectric power. Paraguay produces 100% of its electricity from hydroelectric dams and exports 90% of its production to Brazil and to Argen- tina. The world’s largest hydropower plant is the 22.5-gigawatt Three Gorges (Sanxia) Dam on China’s Yangtze River in China, which is 1.4 miles (2.3 kilometers) wide and 607 feet (185 meters) high. Globally five countries use hydro power most with installed hydropower capacity for Sweden 16.5 GW., Switzerland 16.8 GW., Vietnam 17.3 GW., Spain 20.4 GW. and Italy 22.6 GW. The largest global consumers of hydropower are China, Brazil, and Canada where total consumption in these countries totaled 12.23 exajoules, four exajoules, and 3.7 exajoules, respectively. Sev- eral provinces in Canada produce over 90 percent of their energy through hydropower. More than 150 countries produce hydroelec- tricity, although around 50% of all hydropower is produced by just four countries. In Norway, for example, 99% of electricity comes from hydropower. China, Brazil, Canada, the United States, and Russia are the five largest producers of hydropower. The world’s largest hydroelectric plant in terms of installed capacity is Three Gorges (Sanxia) on China’s Yangtze River, which is 1.4 miles (2.3 kilometers) wide and 607 feet (185 meters) high. The way hydro power works as a global cycle is that water evaporates from lakes and oceans, forming clouds, precipitating as rain or snow, then flowing back to the ocean. Hydro power is considered renewable energy. since water is the fuel powered by sun to make it an endless recharging process for mechanical tasks such as grinding grain or to produce electricity. The kinetic energy of the flowing water, as it moves downstream, converts energy into electricity with the use of turbines and generators which is fed into the electric grid to reach homes, businesses and industry. Hydro power has several advantages as well as few disadvantages, prominently among the latter are dislocation of the natural habitat, a home to the species of fauna and valuable flora for several decades and centuries. The fish population upstream of the dams can be impacted by the impound- ing of water for reservoirs. Minimum flow of downstream water with low oxygen levels, critical for survival of riparian (riverbank) habitats, can be addressed by oxygenating the water. Additionally, hydropower impacts the local environment, by the loss of local cultures and historical sites. The location of reservoirs and dams uproot the local habitats and human population native to the river- banks and natural water courses. Often competing with other land uses, mostly the houses of several human habitats are uprooted by reservoirs and dams. Most serious impediment for hydro power is the drought conditions causing changing of water courses where dams and reservoirs are located. However, the advantages of power generation for the use of recreation in a carbon free envi- ronment would outweigh other disadvantages. Also, outweighing the disadvantages are the several benefits for accepting hydro- power wherever it is a viable alternative power generation source for countering global warming. Hydropower is “carbon-free” and like wind and solar, it does not directly produce carbon dioxide (CO2) or other greenhouse gases that contribute to climate change. For any nation with hydrological power generation resources, the minimal maintenance costs which can outweigh the large initial construction costs make hydropower a prudent power generation choice. It is pragmatic to take advantage what nature has provided any country for creating carbon dioxide and methane free environ- ment by opting these manmade hydro power generation efforts. The author uses 59 figures, 5 tables with 235 footnotes to elucidate his arguments.In Chapter 6, author K. R. Rao addresses Hydro Power Genera- tion in Africa which can impact immensely the socio-economic life of the inhabitants of the countries in Africa. Chapter 6 deals with Africa’s hydro power problems and prospects impacted by climate evident on the continents’ population. The hydro and wave power potential of the African continent has hardly influenced the allevia- tion of nation’s poverty level. In this chapter the author chronicles the influence of climate, role on the dams and reservoirs, docu- ments people’s problems and prospects, profiles hydro and wave potential for power generation, and the future of both hydro and wave power for Africa and finally their role in sustainability of this continent’s growth. In 6.1 Africa’s hydro power problems and prospects impacted by climate and population are addressed. in 6.2 dams Africa’s rivers and dam are addressed with maps. Top five hydro- power projects in Africa are pictured along with hydropower in East Africa in 6.3. This is followed in 6.4 by a discussion about the prospects and problems of hydro power in Africa. In 6.5 quality and delivery system of hydropower is addressed along with hydro- electric distribution. Modernization of hydropower plants is crucial where the average age of hydroelectric facilities is several decades old which is addressed in 6.6 In 6.7 Modernization of hydropower plants is covered with recommendations to tackle it with private sector and international agencies. Author summarizes this chap- ter 6 with sustainable hydro power projections in 6.8 addressing the sustainability to make Africa adequate with reliable energy to combat water security in South Africa. The author concludes this chapter with an optimistic view of Hydro Power Development and Sustainable Projections in 22 pages, 32 figures ,3 tables, and 101 footnotes.In chapter 7 hydropower of Asia, Mideast and South America have been covered. In section 7.1 K. R. Rao addresses. Hydro- power in East Asia and Pacific region that include China, Australia and Tasmania, Cambodia and Laos, Vietnam, Indonesia, Mongo- lia, Papua New Guinea, Japan, Malaya and the Philippines. In Sec- tion 7.2 K.R. Rao covers South and Central Asia which covers the Indian subcontinent. In section 7.3 hydro power in Mid East and North Africa (MENA) has been elaborately addressed by Sharul Sham Dol and Ahmad Ramahi7 who show that renewable energy is pivotal in combating climate change and promoting sustainable development. The urgency to transition from fossil fuels to renew- able energy sources is particularly pronounced in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region. The impacts of climate change intensified by high temperatures, water scarcity, and increasing energy demands are pronounced in this MENA region. Hydro, wave, and tidal power generation present significant opportunities for the MENA region to diversify its energy portfolio, reduce green- house gas emissions, and enhance energy security. The relevance of hydro, wave, and tidal energy in the MENA region stems from their potential to provide clean, dependable, and sustainable power. Hydro power, which harnesses the energy of flowing or falling water, is a well-established technology with significant potential in countries with suitable river systems and dam infrastructure. Wave and tidal energy, which capture the kinetic energy of ocean waves and tidal currents, offer a predictable and consistent source of power, particularly for coastal nations. The energy landscape in the MENA region is characterized by a heavy reliance on fossil fuels, with oil and natural gas accounting for a significant portion of the energy mix. However, there is a growing recognition of the need to transition to renewable energy sources. Several MENA countries have set ambitious renewable energy targets and launched initia- tives to promote clean energy. For instance, the United Arab Emir- ates (UAE) has outlined its Vision 2021 and Energy Strategy 2050, which emphasize the integration of renewable energy, including hydro, wave, and tidal power, into the national energy mix. Simi- larly, Morocco has invested in hydro power projects to enhance its renewable energy capacity and reduce dependence on fossil fuels. Hydro power projects in the MENA region have the potential to significantly contribute to the region’s energy needs. For example, the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD) on the Blue Nile is poised to become a major source of hydroelectric power, with implications for regional energy security and cooperation. How- ever, the availability of suitable sites and water resources remains a challenge in arid and semi-arid regions like MENA. Wave and tidal energy also hold promise for the MENA region. Coastal nations such as Morocco and the UAE are exploring the viability of these technologies through research and pilot projects. The UAE has made significant strides in tidal power development, involving detailed modeling of tidal flows and optimization of energy cap- ture mechanisms. These efforts highlight the potential of marine renewable energy to complement other renewable sources and contribute to a more sustainable energy future. Sharul Sham Dol and Ahmad Ramahi discuss the current state, on-going projects and the potential of hydro power in MENA region, the geographic locations, technical and financial challenges and opportunities, policy support, international collaborations, economic benefits of hydro, wave, and tidal power in MENA are exemplified with 17 references. Finally, in section 7.4 K. R. Rao has covered the hydro power in South America addressing the regional outlook, policy and market overview, latest hydropower developments as well as countries to watch for hydropower development in South America. Authors cover this chapter in 19 pages; 22 figures; 4 tables; 17 references and 122 footnotes.In Chapter 8_Hydropower of Developed Nations is addressed by K. R. Rao stating that normally the items addressed in each of the preceding chapters by the author are sequentially (a) Climate & Population; (b) Hydraulic Electricity & Power Resources -Rivers & Dams; (c) Hydraulic Engineering and Electricity -Problems and Prospects; (d) Hydraulic Power Quality and Delivery System; (e)_ Hydraulic Electricity Distribution; (f) Hydraulic Power Modern- ization and Development; and finally (g) Sustainable Hydropower Projections. However, since several of these items have been cov- ered in previous chapters, only topics germane to this chapter on “Hydropower of Developed Nations” are dealt with in accordance to their importance starting with Global Perspective, Global Hydro Power and Climate Changes, Overall Objective of the Sustain- ability, Hydropower in Australasia and Oceana, Hydropower in Europe, Hydro Power Initiative in Canada and USA. While cov- ering the hydropower of these geographical terrains, the author emphasizes specifically the technology advancement of hydro- power, sustainable development and operation, enhanced revenue and market structure, regulatory process optimization, heightened collaboration, education, and outreach. This chapter is covered in 10 pages, 18 figures,2 tables and 55 footnotes.Global wave and tidal energy is covered in chapter 9 by K. R. Rao. Marine Energy is not necessarily same as Ocean Power. Marine energy can be created in the ocean as also in rivers, lakes, streams, estuaries, and more. The difference between ocean energy and tidal energy is that tidal energy uses gravitational pull of earth, moon and sun to produce energy whereas wave energy uses kinetic forces of waves to generate electricity. The tides at shore- lines of oceans will rise and fall twice a day. Marine energy or marine power is also referred to as ocean energy, ocean power, or marine and hydrokinetic energy. energy refer to the energy carried by ocean waves, tides salinity, and ocean temperature differences. The movement of water in the world’s oceans creates a vast store of kinetic energy, or energy in motion. Some of this energy can be harnessed to generate electricity to power homes, transport and industries. The term marine energy encompasses both wave power i.e., power from surface waves, and tidal power obtained from the kinetic energy of large bodies of moving water. The oceans have a tremendous amount of energy and are close to many if not most concentrated populations. Ocean energy has the potential of pro- viding a substantial amount of new renewable energy around the world. substantial amount of renewable energy around the world. Marine currents can carry large amounts of water, largely driven by the tides, which are a consequence of the gravitational effects of the planetary motion of the Earth, the Moon and the Sun. Augmented flow velocities can be found where the underwater topography in straits between islands and the mainland or in shallows around headlands plays a major role in enhancing the flow velocities, resulting in appreciable kinetic energy. The Sun acts as the primary driving force, causing winds and temperature differences. Because there are only small fluctuations in current speed and stream loca- tion with minimal changes in direction, ocean currents may be suit- able locations for deploying energy extraction devices such as tur- bines. Other effects such as regional differences in temperature and salinity and the Coriolis effect. An effect whereby a mass moving in a rotating system experiences a force (the Coriolis force) acting perpendicular to the direction of motion and to the axis of rotation. On the earth, the effect tends to deflect moving objects to the right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern and is important in the formation of cyclonic weather systems. See due to the rotation of the earth are also major influences. The kinetic energy of marine currents can be converted in much the same way that a wind turbine extracts energy from the wind, using various types of open-flow rotors. Strong ocean currents are generated from a combination of temperature, wind, salinity, bathymetry, and the rotation of the Earth. Ocean currents are instrumental in deter- mining the climate in many regions around the world. While little is known about the effects of removing ocean current energy, the impacts of removing current energy on the near field and environ- ments may be significant environmental concerns. The typical tur- bine issues with blade strike, entanglement of marine organisms, and acoustic effects still exists; however, these may be magnified due to the presence of more diverse populations of marine organ- isms using ocean currents for migration purposes. Locations can be further offshore and therefore require longer power cables that could affect the marine environment with electromagnetic output. Environmental effects global potential of ocean, wave and tidal energy are discussed in this chapter. The exhaustive coverage of this chapter by the author is extremely comprehensive. Physical Concepts, Classification, Characteristics, including Longitudinal Wave Motion, Path and Wave Differences such as Periodic Wave and Orbital Motion of waves have been covered. Classification of Wave Power, Wave Energy Repercussions, Wave Energy Equations, Wave Energy Flux, Airy Wave Theory Gravity Waves Airy equations Linear Potential Flow Theory are addressed. The author covers the Wave Power Formula, Wave Energy Con- verters, Point Absorber Bouy, Surface Attenuator, Oscillating Wave Surge Converter, Oscillating Water Column, Overtopping Device. Pressure Differential, Floating In-Air Converters, Wave Farms, Modern Technology. Challenges and opportunities, Pros and Cons, Technological Rationale, Systems, Types, Scale and Size, Sociological and Eco- nomic Component, Economic- Financial Implications A Global Picture, Ecological and Environmental Considerations, Global Applications of Wave Energy are enumerated. Listing of Global Wave Energy Projects, List of wave power stations, Location of Global Wave Energy with Case Study Reports of Tidal Energy, Ocean Waves, Tidal vs. Wind Energy, Differences of Wave and Tidal Power, Use of Wave and Tidal Energy, Potential of Tidal Energy for Global Use are described. Characteristics of Tidal Energy, Types of Tidal Energy. Meth- ods of Tidal Energy, Principles of Tidal Energy. Ecological and Environment Considerations, Sociological and Economic Ratio- nale, Technical and Legal Ramifications, Challenges and Oppor- tunities, Listing Global Tidal Facilities, Global Ramifications are covered that include Africa, East & South Asia, Mideast, S. Amer- ica, Developed Countries - Europe, The US and Canada. Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC), Sustainable Future of Wave Energy, Thermodynamics and a rigorous treatment of OTEC are paraphrased. A 20 °C temperature difference will pro- vide as much energy as a hydroelectric plant with 34 m head for the same volume of water flow. The low temperature difference means that water volumes must be very large to extract useful amounts of heat. A 100 MW power plant would be expected to pump in the order of 12 million gallons (44,400 metric tons) per minute. This makes pumping a substantial parasitic drain on energy pro- duction in OTEC systems, with one Lockheed design consuming 19.55 MW in pumping costs for every 49.8 MW net electricity generated, making them one of the most critical components due to their impact on overall efficiency. A 100 MW OTEC power plant would require 200 exchangers each larger than a 20-foot shipping container making them the single most expensive component.327 MW OTEC power plant would require 200 exchangers each larger than a 20-foot shipping container making them the single most expensive component. Sustainability and Future Ocean current energy and its potential are discussed. The oceans contain several steady currents such as the Benguela and the Agulhas currents. Turbines fixed or sus- pended to the ocean floor can harvest the kinetic energy of currents and convert it to electricity that is brought to the coast through underwater cables. The technology can be used in locations where a current is close to the coast such as the Agulhas current along the east coast of South Africa. This technology has been piloted in the Gulf Stream off the coast of Florida in the USA and in Norway. An assessment of ocean currents off South Africa’s coast found that the Agulhas current travels swiftly enough for harvesting energy. It is also relatively close to the surface at less than 200m depth. The study estimates the overall power of the current as between 21 and 27GW but cautions that the useable power is significantly less due to ship traffic interference etcetera.In hot climates, oceans absorb a very large amount of heat from the sun and store it in the upper layers of water. OTEC uses the temperature difference between deep cold water and warmer water close to the surface to run a heat engine and produce useful energy, usually in the form of electricity. At present the use of ocean energy is mainly at the prototype stage, although some companies have set up commercial scale applications. One of the recent achievements is the RITE Project on the East River, New York, NY which is a proof of the ability to create profitable and sustainable projects. A White Paper on Wave Energy Potential on the U.S. Outer Conti- nental Shelf has been widely circulated such as in the U.S. Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) publications.Ocean waves represent a form of renewable energy created by wind currents passing over open water. Capturing the energy of ocean waves in offshore locations has been demonstrated as tech- nically feasible to develop improved designs of wave energy con- version (WEC) devices in regions such as near the Oregon coast, which is a high wave energy resource. Compared with other forms of offshore renewable energy, ocean current and wave energy although continuous are highly variable but can be confidently pre- dicted several days in advance. The offshore ocean wave energy resource, as a derivative form of solar energy, has considerable potential for making a significant contribution to the alternative usable energy supply. The total average wave energy at a depth of 60 m off the U.S. coastlines, including Alaska and Hawaii, has been estimated at 2,100 TWh/yr. In the past several decades, vari- ous designs have been developed and tested to capture this energy resource, and several are now moving toward commercial prototype testing. On the basis of currently available empirical informa- tion, the environmental impacts are expected to be small; however, as with any emerging technology, unknowns still exist with respect to environmental impacts, and careful monitoring and assessment are required. This chapter has a coverage of 56 pages with 16 equations, 10 tables, 70 figures and 333 footnotes.