Wind Energy for Power GenerationMeeting the Challenge of Practical ImplementationVolume 1
K. R. Rao
SPRINGER

K. R. Rao
Wind Energy for Power Generation
Meeting the Challenge of Practical Implementation
Volume 1


K. R. Rao
KRRao- Consulting Brandon, MS, USA

ISBN 978-3-319-75132-0	ISBN 978-3-319-75134-4 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75134-4
Library of Congress Control Number: 2018944264

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Prologue
The title portrays the intent of this book is to unravel the “Wind Energy for Power Generation – Meeting the Challenge of Practical Implementation” so that “intricacies” involved in making policy decisions for selecting “Wind Energy for Power Generation” around the globe are unraveled. The author recognizes that public policy decisions would involve several layers of details, interknit with multidisciplines, for end users who could be individuals, neighborhood groups, township committees, utilities, or even operators of a national grid.
This publication is divided into seven chapters, ﬁrst chapter dealing with technical considerations, the second dealing with wind energy economics, and chapters three, four, ﬁve, six and seven sequentially deal with socioeconomic factors, geopolitical parameters, environmental impacts, role of conservation and efﬁciency and leading to public policy implications respectively.
The ﬁrst chapter containing technical considerations addresses wind power technology in an easily understandable format starting with historical background. Whereas several publications dealing with wind energy have detailed discussions about technical aspects and few inciden- tally address economic aspects, there are practically no books which cover other aspects critical for decision-making process. The technical considerations will provide correlations for making public policy decisions taken at all levels of the government, engineering students, and practicing professionals involved in wind as energy and power generation source.
Economic parameters relevant to practicing professionals and decision makers become the vital components of the decision process which are eloquently covered in second chapter of this book. In addition, few examples for professional engineering examinations are also included. The matrix of the other chapters covered will unravel “comprehensively” all of the details pertaining to socioeconomic parameters, environmental issues and reduction of global warming, geopolitical constraints, and role of conservation that impact public policy decisions. These will be coherently and succinctly paraphrased in this book for the USA as well as the global context. This matrix of coverage is not merely for USA but address developed countries, including Europe, Canada, Japan, and Australasia; developing countries of Asia such as China and India; select Latin American countries such as Brazil and Argentina; as well as Middle East and Africa. Case studies of wind power projects from sources available in public domain such as Canadian, Indian, British, Spanish, and the US wind energy systems, and other global energy systems are succinctly addressed.
The “front matter” and “end matter” of this publication are applicable to all of the seven chapters.
The energy and power generation issues in these current days of globalization do not have national boundaries. The coverage around globe not only envelops diverse interdisciplinary engineering constraints and resource potential of wind for energy and power generation but also delves into optimal techniques to make wind comparable to the conventional energy resources. The discussions throughout the book, provided with pertinent sketches, graphics, equations, tables, several references, and elaborate bibliographical footnotes are meant for further study to probe into related aspects. Immense use of this publication will be for academia due to the rich scholastic coverage of each of the topics. Author with his editorial experience of professional publications in the engineering ﬁeld has focused on the end users in addition to the libraries of engineering schools, schools of public and international affairs, public policy institutes, and professional societies.
Author does not make any pretext about the textual content in this entire publication. Instead of “reinventing the wheel,” author has researched to explore expert opinions pertaining to each paragraph and topic in this publication. Thus, the reader will ﬁnd several statements are authenticated by foot notes and citations from scholastic sources throughout the book. As mentioned in all of the chapters, “cherry-picking” has been adopted throughout the text, to assimilate the essence of the viewpoint of eminent practicing professionals involved in wind engineering. In several situations the source for the sentences and paragraphs cited in the text could also pertain to the following text and paragraphs. This way author has avoided repetitions of cited references. For an “in-depth” knowledge of any particular aspect, readers are advised to follow the citations in the footnotes to consult the respective authorities for the aspects covered. All of the chapters have been thoroughly reviewed by at least two independent reviewers.
The reviewers have been selected from ﬁelds other than Wind Engineering to avoid “piled higher and deeper” attitude. The reviewers are preeminently qualiﬁed engineering professionals whose “outside-the-box” opinion would be valuable for advocating the viewpoint advanced by the author. Each of the reviewer’s bio-data with pictures is included in the “front matter” of this publication.
It is worth mentioning that author feels he is uniquely qualiﬁed to address all of the topics covered in this publication. With his multidisciplinary educational qualiﬁcations, afﬁliations to August Professional Societies, and ﬁve decades of diverse professional achievements, as accounted in his bio-data, he is justly qualiﬁed to write a comprehensive document of energy and power generation from wind resource.


Contents of Volume 1
Wind Energy: Technical Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 	1
1	Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .	1
1.1	Turbine Basics for Power Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 	2
2	Historical Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 	3
2.1	Early Developments of Wind for Energy Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 	3
2.2	Recent Development of Turbines for Wind Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . 	4
2.3	Development of Wind Turbine Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 	7
2.4	Size and Rated Power Output of Wind Turbines Developed Under NASA-Led Program .. . . . . . . . . . . 	8
3	Wind Regimes, Wind Energy Resources, Potentials, and Limitations . . . . . .	9
3.1	Analysis of Wind Regimes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 	9
3.2	Wind Turbine Turbulence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 	14
3.3	Gust Wind Speeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 	16
4	Wind Energy Properties and Characteristics and Wind Speed Formulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .	16
4.1	The Nature of Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .	16
4.2	Geographical Variation in the Wind Resource . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .	17
4.3	Time Variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .	17
4.4	Measurement of Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 	20
4.5	Anemometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 	20
4.6	Analysis of Wind Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .	29
4.7	Statistical Models for Wind Data Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 	33
4.8	Energy Estimation of Wind Regimes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .	45
5	Wind Turbine Types and Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 	48
5.1	Turbine Conﬁgurations and Wind Turbine Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . 	48
5.2	Wind Turbine Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .	55
6	Wind Turbine Components and Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 	56
6.1	Wind Turbine Technology Including Components of HAWT .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 	56
6.2	Technology of HAWT Wind Turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 	60
6.3	Design Speciﬁcation, Design Feasibility of Wind Turbine Systems, and Costs  . . . . . . . . 	61
6.4	Turbine Blades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 	62
6.5	Rotor Hub . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .	68
6.6	Nacelle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 	69
6.7	Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 	70
6.8	Power Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 	72
6.9	Other Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 	79
6.10	Tower Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 	80
6.11	Wind Turbine Foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 	81
7	Basic Principles, Concepts, and Kinematics of Wind Energy	83
•	1.7.1	Basic Energy Concepts and Equations	85
7.2	Aerodynamic Characteristic of Flow Parameters	86
7.3	Angular Momentum and Lanchester-Betz-Joukowsky Limit	88
7.4	Basic Energy Conservation Concepts and Equations	92
7.5	Basic Equations of Wind Turbine Power and Torque	97
7.6	Induction Factors	100
8	Aerodynamics of Wind Turbine Blades and Airfoils	104
8.1	General Aerodynamic Considerations	104
8.2	Airfoils 	105
8.3	Aerodynamics of Wind Turbine Blades	110
8.4	Aerodynamic Forces: Deﬁnitions and Practical Meaning of Lift and Drag	116
8.5	Effect of Reynolds Number on Lift and Drag Coefﬁcients	130
8.6	The Boundary Layer	131
8.7	Real Fluids	131
8.8	Relative Velocity of Wind	133
8.9	Drag-Based Turbines	134
8.10	Maximum Power of A Drag-Based Wind Turbine	136
8.11	Maximum Power of A Lift-Based Wind Turbine	137
9	Blade Design Aspects and Theories	138
9.1	Aerodynamic Modeling and Blade Design Theories	138
9.2	The Signiﬁcance of Betz Limit	138
9.3	Blade Element Theory: Velocities and Forces for a Blade Element	142
9.4	Blade Element Momentum Theory	147
9.5	Vertical-Axis Wind Turbines (VAWTs)	151
9.6	Blade Design for Modern Wind Turbines: Blade Operational Environment	155
10	Rotor and Turbine Design Aspects, Performance Characteristics, and Testing	155
10.1	Rotor Blade Theory	155
10.2	Determination of Rotor Torque and Power	155
10.3	Trends in Approaches to Rotor Design	160
10.4	Current Rotor Design Practice	161
10.5	Rotor Disk Theory	161
10.6	Rotor Design	165
10.7	Rotor Performance	169
10.8	Estimation of the Turbine Loads	174
10.9	Design Constraints	174
10.10	Predict Performance	175
10.11	Design Evaluation	175
10.12	Cost of Components and Overall Cost of Turbine	176
10.13	Wind Turbine Design and Testing	176
10.14	Sources of Wind Turbine Loads: Types	178
10.15	Wind Turbine Standards, Technical Speciﬁcations, and Certiﬁcation	179
10.16	Design Conditions of Wind Turbines	181
10.17	Design Wind Regimes	182
10.18	Design Load Cases	185
10.19	Load Scaling Factors	187
10.20	Maximum Stresses	188
10.21	Blade Natural Frequencies			189
10.22	Strip Theory			190
11	Wind Electricity Generation Systems	193
11.1	Introduction	193
11.2	Basics of Electromagnetism	193
11.3	Basic Principles of Alternating Current (AC)	194
11.4	Basic Principles of Electrical Machines	196
11.5	Conversion of Mechanical to Electric Power	198
11.6	Wind Turbine Generators	201
11.7	How Generators Work	205
11.8	Types of Generators Used for Wind Turbines	207
11.9	Synchronous Generator	208
11.10	Permanent Magnet (PM) Generators	214
11.11	Analysis of Synchronous Generator	218
11.12	Equivalent Circuit of a Synchronous Generator	220
11.13	Power and Torque in Synchronous Generators	226
11.14	Measuring Parameters of Synchronous Generator Model	231
11.15	Variable-Speed Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generators	234
11.16	Direct-Drive Synchronous Generator (DDSG)	236
11.17	Wind Turbines Using Induction Generators	237
11.18	Asynchronous Generators	241
11.19	Variable-Speed Generators	251
11.20	Synchronous Generator Rectiﬁers	252
11.21	Synchronous Generator Circuit and Summary	253
11.22	Indirect Grid Connection of Wind Turbines	253
11.23	Performance of Wind Energy Conversion Systems	255
11.24	Gearboxes for Wind Turbines: Why Use a Gearbox?	255
11.25	Controlling Power Quality from Wind Turbines	258
11.26	Power Curve of the Wind Turbine	258
11.27	Power Curve of the Wind Turbine: Using Weibull-Based Approach	262
11.28	Power Curve of the Wind Turbine: Using Rayleigh-Based Approach	264
11.29	Capacity Factor	265
11.30	Synchronous Generator Ratings			265
11.31	Synchronous Generator Capability Curves	266
11.32	Matching the Turbine with the Wind Regime	268
12	Grid Integration and Distribution; Transmission and Power Distribution	270
12.1	Grid Connections	270
12.2	How the Variability of Wind Energy Is Handled on the Grid	272
12.3	Transfer of Electrical Energy to the Grid	275
12.4	Collection and Transmission Network	277
12.5	Basic Components in a Circuit for Wind Project	279
12.6	Transformers for Wind Applications	279
12.7	Wind-Plant Interconnection and Transmission Study	280
12.8	Transmission and Distribution	281
12.9	Standards for Interconnection	284
12.10	Interactions Between the Grid and Wind Farm: “Wind Farm Topologies”	287
12.11	Grounding for Overvoltage and Lightning Protection	287
12.12	Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) Systems	290
13	Wind Farms	291
13.1	Deﬁnitions	292
13.2	History	293
13.3	List of Large Onshore Wind Farms	294
13.4	Why Put Wind Turbines in the Sea	294
13.5	Nearshore Wind Power	296
13.6	Offshore Wind Farms	296
13.7	Economics of Offshore Wind Energy Development	305
13.8	Technical Details of Offshore Wind Development	309
13.9	Design Environment with Offshore Wind Power	316
13.10	Floating Turbines	317
13.11	A Wind Vision for a Future of Offshore Wind	325
13.12	Deliberations Regarding Factors for Deploying Offshore Wind Energy	326
14	Wind Power Generation: Efﬁciency IN Buildings and Urban Design	330
14.1	Small-Sized Wind Turbines	330
14.2	Small-Sized Wind Turbines: Usage Markets	333
14.3	Small-Scale Wind Turbine Design	337
14.4	Small-Scale Wind Turbine Installation	339
14.5	Types of Urban Wind Turbines (UWTs)	339
14.6	Urban Wind Turbine (UWT) Environmental Effects	341
14.7	Technical and Cost Data for Select Urban Wind Turbines (UWTs)	341
14.8	Urban Wind Turbine (UWT) Manufacturers	344
14.9	Use of Urban Wind Turbine (UWT) is Debatable!	348
14.10	Technical Rationale for Urban Wind Turbines (UWTs)	350
15	Wind Power in Hybrid and Cogeneration	363
15.1	Hybrid Deﬁnition	363
15.2	Wind–Solar Hybrid Systems	364
15.3	Other Wind Hybrid Energy Generations	365
15.4	Wind–Solar Hybrid Utility Integration and Storage Systems	368
15.5	Hybrid Power Generation and Storage Systems	371
15.6	Hybrid Grid Integration	372
15.7	Wind–Solar Hybrid Distributed Energy Resources (DER)	374
15.8	Hybrid Renewable Energy Systems Case Studies	376
15.9	Cogeneration	378
16	Wind Energy Advantages and Limitations	379
16.1	Wind Energy Technical Advantages	379
16.2	Wind Energy Policy Issues Involving Technical Merits	380
16.3	Wind Energy Cost Advantage Impact	382
16.4	Economic Advantages	384
16.5	Wind Energy Environmental Advantages 	385
16.6	Social Plusses 	385
16.7	Technical Shortcomings	386
16.8	Economic Limitations	386
16.9	Environmental Beneﬁts and Shortcomings	387
16.10	Social Ills, If Any	388
17	Wind Energy Possibilities: Next Generation of Turbines with Advanced Technology	388
17.1	Records of Wind Turbines	388
18	Summary and Conclusions: Technical Details for Making Public Policy Decisions	421
Wind Energy Economics		427
1	Précis			428
2	Raison D’être			428
3	Rationale of Financial Commitments	430
3.1	Delineation			430
3.2	Capital Costs			430
3.3	Recurring Operation and Maintenance (O&M) Costs	442
3.4	Productive Costs			447
3.5	Revenue Model			453
3.6	Projected Costs			458
3.7	Future Costs			460
3.8	Financial Evaluation			463
4	Economic Evaluations for Investment Milieus	464
4.1	Simple Interest (SI)			465
4.2	Compound Interest (CI)			465
4.3	Uniform Gradient Series			465
4.4	“Present Worth (Value)” Approach	466
4.5	Future Worth Costs			471
4.6	Uniform Payment Present Worth Series	472
4.7	Uniform Gradient Present Worth Series	472
4.8	Example Problems Exemplifying “Present and Future Worth Approaches”	473
4.9	Economic Evaluation Methods			474
4.10	Cash Flow Method and Cost of Energy (COE) Estimates	477
4.11	Cash Flow Activities in Any Plant Including a Wind Power Plant	481
4.12	Life Cycle Costing (LCC) Method	483
4.13	Net Present Value of Cost or Savings	484
4.14	Other Life Cycle Analysis Parameters: r Discount Rate     and I General Inﬂation Rate	488
4.15	Beneﬁt–Cost Ratio			488
4.16	Levelizing			488
4.17	Capital Recovery Factor			489
4.18	Electric Utility Models			489
5	Funds and Vehicles for Project Investment	491
5.1	Sinking Fund	492
5.2	Annuities	494
5.3	Amortization of Loans and Debt	495
5.4	Perpetuities	495
5.5	Bonds	495
5.6	Subsidies and Grants	499
5.7	Community Ownership: Role of Cooperatives	500
5.8	Indirect Forms of Investment	502
6	Cost Comparison of Investment Strategies	503
6.1	Annual Cost and “Equivalent Annuity”	504
6.2	Capital Costs			508
6.3	Economic Evaluations			511
6.4	Comprehensive Economic Evaluation (CEE)	512
6.5	Net Present Value (NPV)			513
6.6	Rate of Return			516
6.7	Simpliﬁed Economic Analysis Methods: Simple Payback Method 	520
6.8	Uniform Annualized Cost	525
6.9	Levelized Cost of Energy (LCOE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 	52
6.10	Economic Beneﬁts of Wind Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 	52
6.11	Break-Even Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .	531
6.12	Economic Analysis Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 	534
6.13	Financing Options and Structure for Wind Energy Maintenance Improvements	536
7	Issues of Money as a Function of Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .	539
7.1	Economic Time Life and Depreciation of the Capital . . . . . . . . . . 	539
7.2	Depreciation and Taxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .	546
7.3	Depletion of the Capital . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .	549
7.4	Inﬂation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 	551
7.5	Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .	551
8	Wind Energy Market Considerations: An Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .	567
8.1	Utility-Scale International Wind Energy Market . . . . . . . . . . . . . .	568	
8.2	Residential Wind Energy Economics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .	574	
8.3	Business and Farm Wind Energy Economics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .	575	
8.4	Urban Wind Energy Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 	587	
8.5	Land and Offshore Wind Farm Economics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .	595	
8.6	Utility Economics: Grid Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 	601	
8.7	Global Wind Energy Market: Experience, Solutions, and Methods for the Integration of Wind Power 
	into Power Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .	606	
8.8	Stock Market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .	612	
9	Impact of Wind Energy on Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 	616	
9.1	Value of Wind Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 	618	
9.2	Avoided Cost-Based Value of Wind Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .	618	
9.3	Environmental Savings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 	622	
9.4	Labor Component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 	625	
10	 Wind Energy vis-à-vis Other Energy Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 	631	
10.1	Resources Factors for Resource Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 	631	
10.2	Economic Factors for Comparison of Wind with Other Energy Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 	637	
10.3	Wind Energy Versus Renewable Energies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 	642	
10.4	Other Factors for Consideration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .	657	
10.5	Wind Hybrid Power Generation System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 	659	
11 Vacillations of Wind Energy Economics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 	660	
11.1	Uncertainty and Probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 	661	
11.2	Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .	664	
11.3	Insurance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 	665	
11.4	Regulatory Powers as Incentives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 	665	
12 Application of Methods to Wind Engineering Economics . . . . . . . . . . . . . .	673	
12.1	Computational Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 	673	
12.2	Regression Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 	675	
12.3	Monte Carlo Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 	676	
12.4	Linear Programming (LP) and Optimization Techniques . . . . . . . . 	677	
12.5	Econometrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 	691	
13 Summary and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 	693	
13.1	Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 	693	
13.2	Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 	700	
Epilogue	1391
List of Figures	193
List of Tables	1415
References	1419
Index	

Wind Energy for Power Generation

Meeting the Challenge of Practical Implementation

Volume 1 K. R. Rao SPRINGER